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Simile
The intensification of some features of the concept in question is
realized in a device called simile. S. must not be confused with ordinary
comparison. They represent two diverse processes. C. means weighing two
objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the
degree of their sameness or difference. To use S. is to characterize one
object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an
entirely different class of things. C. takes into consideration all the
properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared. S.
excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made
common to them.
E. g. ‘The boy seems to be as
clever as his mother
It is ordinary comparison. ‘Boy’ and ‘Mother’ belong to the same class of
objects – human beings – and only one quality is being stressed to find the
resemblance.
‘Maidens, like moths, are
ever caught by glare,’
It is simile. ‘Maidens’ and ‘moths’ belong to different classes of objects
and Byron has found the concept ‘moth’ to indicate one of the secondary
features of the concept ‘maiden’, i. e., to be easily lured. Concept
Maidens’ is characterized and the concept ‘moths’ characterizing.
Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like,
as, such as, as if, seem.
Similes may suggest analogies in the character of actions performed. In this
case the two members of the structural design of this simile will resemble
each other trough the actions they perform. Thus:
“The Liberals have plunged
for entry without considering its effects, while Labour leaders like
cautious bathers have put a timorous toe into the water and promptly
withdrawn it.”
The simile in this passage from newspaper’s article is based on the
simultaneous realization of the two meanings of the word ‘plunged’. The
primary meaning ‘to through oneself into the water’ – prompted the figurative
periphrasis ‘have put a timorous toe into the water and promptly withdrawn
it’ standing for ‘have abstained from taking action’.
In the English language, there is a long list of hackneyed similes pointing
out the analogy between the various qualities, states or actions of human
being and animals: busy as a bee, blind as a bat, to work like a hors, to
fly like a bird, thirsty as a camel. These combinations have become
cliches.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or
an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being
opposite in sense,
E.g.: low skyscraper; sweet
sorrow; pleasantly ugly face
The essence of oxymoron consists in the capacity of the primary meaning of
the adjective or adverb to resist for some time the overwhelming power of
semantic change which words undegro in combination. The forcible combination
of non-combinative words seems to develop what may be called a kind of
centrifugal force which keeps them apart, in contrast to ordinary word
combinations where centripetal force is in action.
In oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast because there is no true word
combination, only the juxtaposition of two non-combinative words. But we may notice
a peculiar change in the meaning of the qualifying word. It assumes a new
life in oxymoron, definitely indicative of assessing tendency in the writer’s
mind.
E. g. (O. Henry) “I despise its
very vastness and power. It has the poorest millionaires, the littlest
great men, the haughtiest beggars, the plainest beauties,
the lowest skyscrapers, the dolefulest pleasures of any town I
eve seen.”
Even the superlative degree of the adjectives fails to extinguish the
primary meaning of the adjectives: poor, little, haughty, etc. But by
some inner law of word combinations they also show the attitude of the
speaker, reinforced, of course, by the preceding sentence: “I despise its
very vastness and power.”
Oxymoron as a rule has one structural model: adjective noun. It is in this
structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion
into one unit manifests itself most strongly. In the adverb adjective model
the change of meaning in the first element, the adverb, is more rapid,
resistance to the unifying process not being so strong
Not every combination of words which we called non-combinative should be
regarded as oxymoron, because new meaning developed in new combinations do
not necessarily give rise to opposition.
Irony
Irony is stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two
logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in
opposition to each other.
E.g. “It must be delightful to
find oneself in a foreign country
without a penny in one’s pocket.”
The word “delightful” acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary
dictionary meaning, that is “unpleasant”.
Irony must not be confused with humor, although they have very much in
common. Humor always causes laughter. What is funny must come as sudden clash
of the positive an the negative. In this respect irony can be likened to
humor. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect.
In a sentence like “How clever of you” where, due to the intonation pattern,
the word “clever” conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification, the
irony does not cause a ludicrous effect. It rather expresses a feeling of
irritation, displeasure, pity or regret
Richard Altick says, “The effect of irony lies in the striking disparity
between what is said and what is meant.” This “striking disparity” is
achieved trough the intentional interplay of the two meanings, which are in
opposition to each other.
We must also take into consideration that irony is generally used to convey a
negative meaning. Therefore only positive concepts may be used in their
logical dictionary meanings.
Metonymy
Metonymy is based on different types of relation between the dictionary
and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind
of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.
Thus the word “crown” may stand for “king or queen”, “cup or glass” for the
drink it contains” These examples of metonymy are traditional. In fact they
are derivative logical meanings and therefore fixed in dictionaries, there is
usually a label “fig”. This shows that new meaning not entirely replaced the
primary one, but, as it were, co-exists with it.
Contextual metonymy is used in speech. It is genuine metonymy and reveals a
quite unexpected substitution of one word, or even concept for another, on
the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of the
thing.
E.g. “Then they came in. Two of
them, a man with long fair moustaches
and a silent dark man… Definitely, the
moustache and I had nothing in common.”
Here we have a feature of a man which catches the eye, in this case his
facial appearance: the moustache stands for himself. The function of the
metonymy here is to indicate that the speaker knows nothing of the man,
moreover there is a definite implication that this is the first time the
speaker has seen him.
Metonymy and metaphor differs in the way they are deciphered. In this process
of disclosing the meaning in a metaphor, one image excludes the other, that
is the metaphor “lamp” in the “The sky lamp of the night” when
deciphered, means the moon, and though there is a definite interplay of
meanings, we perceive only one object, the moon. This is not the case
with metonymy. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind does not
exclude the other. In the example given above the moustache and the
man himself are both perceived by the mind.
Mane attempts have been made to pinpoint the types of relation which metonymy
is based on. Among them the following are most common:
1. A concrete thing used
instead of an abstract notion. In this case the thing becomes a symbol of the
notion. E.g. “The camp, the pulpit and the law For rich men’s sons are
free.”
2. The container instead
of the thing contained: E. g. “The hall applauded.”
3. The relation of
proximity: E. g. “The round game table was boisterous and happy.”
4. The material instead of
the thing made of it: E. g. “The marble spoke.”
5. The instrument which
the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer
himself: E. g. “as the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so
should it be the last.”
Chiasmus
Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the repetition
of syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The
structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described
as reversed parallel construction, the word order of one the sentences being
inverted as compared to that of the other:
E. g. “Down dropped the
breeze,
The sails dropped down.”
The device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part
of the utterance, which is opposite in structure
Chiasmus can appear only when there are two successive sentences or
coordinate parts of a sentence
Syntactical chiasmus is somtimes used to break the monotony of parallel
constructions. But whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always bring in
some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of the
second part.
Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton is the stylistic device of connecting sentences or phrases or
syntagms or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions)
before each component part.
E. g. “Should you ask me, whence
these stories?
Whence these legends and
traditions,
With the odours of the
forest,
With the dew, and damp of
meadows,
With the curling smoke of
wigwams
With the rushing of great
rivers,
With their frequent
repetitions,…”
The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an
utterance more rhythmical; so much so that prose may even seem like verse. So
one of the functions of polysyndeton is a rhythmical one. In addition to this
, polysyndeton has a disintegrating function. It generaly combines
homogeneous elements of thought into one whole resembling enumeration. But
unlike enumeration, which integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous
elements into one whole, polysyndeton causes each member of a string of facts
to stand out conspicuously. That is why we say that polysyndeton has a
disintegrating function. Enumeration snows the things united: polysyndeton
snows them isolated.
Polysyndeton has also the function of axpressing sequence:
E. g. “Then Mr. Boffin… sat staring at a little bookcase of Law Practic
and Law Reports, And at a window, and at an empty blue bag…..”
Stylistic inversion
Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional
emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a
specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion
Stylistic inversion in Modern English is the practical realization of what
is potential in the language itself.
The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in
both English prose and poetry:
1. The object is placed at
the beginning of the sentence: “Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital
Mr. Micawber has not.”
2. The attribute is placed
after the word it modifies. This model is often used when there is more than
one attribute: “With fingers weary and worn…”
3. The predicative is
placed before the subject: “A good generuos prayer it was”
The predicative stands before the link verb and both are placed before the
subject: “Rude am I in my speech…”
4. The adverbial modifier
is placed at the beginning of the sentence: “My dearest daughter, at your
feet I fall.”
5. Both modifier and
predicate stand before the subject: “Down dropped the breeze…”
Antonomasia
The interplay between logical and nominal meanings of a word is called
antonomasia. As in other stylistic devices based on the interaction of
lexical meanings, the two kinds of meanings must be realized in the word
simultaneously.
E. g. “Society is now one polished
horde,
Form’d of two mighty tribes, the Bores
and Bored.”
In this example of use antonomasia the nominal meaning is hardly
perceived, the logical meaning of the words “bores” and “bored” being to
strong. It is very important to note that this stylistic device is mainly
realized in the written language, because sometimes capital letters are the
only signals of the stylistic device. But there is another point that should
be mentioned. Most proper names are built in some law of analogy. Many of
them end in “-son” (as Johnson) or “-er” (as Fletcher). We easily recognize
such words as Smith, White, Brown, Green, Fowler and others as proper
names. But such names as: Miss Blue-Eyes or Scrooge or Mr.
Zero may be called token names. They give information to the reader about
the bearer of the name.
Antonomasia is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic
feature or event, at the same time pinning the this leading trait as a proper
name to the person or event concerned.
Antonomasia is much favoured device in the belles-lettres style.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is
to intensify one of the features of the object in question to such a degree
as will show its utter absurdity.
E. g. “And this maiden she lived
with no other thought
Than to love and be loved by me.”
Like many stylistic devices, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic
device through frequent repetition and become a unit of the
language-as-a-system, reproduced in speech in its unaltered form. Here are
some examples of language hyperbole: ‘a thousand pardons’; ‘scared to death’;
I’d give the world to see him’
Epithet
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to
characterise an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently
imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with aim of
giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or
properties. The epithet is markedly subjective and evaluative. The logical
attribute is purely objective, non-evaluating. It is descriptive and
indicates an inherent or prominent feature of the thing or phenomenon in
question.
Thus in green meadows, white snow, round table and the like, the
adjectives are more logical attributes than epithets. They indicate those
qualities of the objects which may be regarded as generally recognized. But
in wild wind, loud ocean, heart-burning smile, the adjectives do not
point to inherent qualities of the objects described. They are subjective
evaluative.
Epithets may be classified from different standpoints: semantic and structural.
Semantically – divided into associated with the noun following and unassociated
with it.
Associated epithets are those which point out to a feature which is
essential to the objects they describe: the idea expressed in the epithet is
to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. For e. g. ‘dark
forest’, ‘careful attention’ etc.
Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by
adding a feature not inherent in it. For e. g. ‘heart-burning smile’,
voiceless sands’. The adjectives here impose a property on objects which is
fitting only in the given circumstances.
Structurally, epithets can be viewed from the angle of a) composition
and b) distribution.
Compositional – may be divided into simple, compound and phrase epithets. Simple
epithets are ordinary adjectives (wild wind, loud ocean). Compound
epithets are built like compound adjectives (heat-burning sigh, sylph-like
figures). Phrase epithets: a phrase and even a whole sentence may
become an epithet if the main formal requirement of the epithets is
maintained i. e. its attributive use. But unlike simple and compound
epithets, which may have pre- and post-position, phrase epithets are always
placed before the nouns they refer to. (Freddie was standing on front of the
fireplace with a ‘well-that’s-the-story-what-are-we-going-to-do-about-it’ air
that made him a local point) Phrase epithets are generally followed by the expression,
air, attitude and others which describe behaviour or facial expression,
Reversed epithet is composed of two nouns linked in an of – phrase.
The subjective, evaluating, emotional element is embodied not in the noun
attribute but in the noun described (the shadow of a smile; a devil
of a sea rolls in that bay)
From the point of view of the distribution of the epithets in the
sentence, the first model to be pointed out is the string of epithets
(a plump, rosy-checked, wholesome, apple-faced, young woman; a
well-matched, fairly-balanced, give-and-take couple). The string of
epithets gives a many-sided depiction of the object.
Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attributes generally
describing the state of a human being, but made to refer to an inanimate
object (sleepless pillow, unbreakfasted morning)
It remains only to say that the epithet is direct and straightforward way of
showing the author’s attitude towards the things described.
Litotes
Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative
constructions. The negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a
positive feature in a person or thing. This pisitive feature is however is
somewhat diminished in quality as compared with a synonymous expression
making a straightforward assertion of the positive feature.
E. g. 1. It’s not a bad thing
It’s a good thing
2. He is no coward – He is a brave
man
In both cases the negative construction is weaker than affirmative one.
But we can not say that the two negative constructions produce a lesser
effect than the corresponding affirmative ones. Moreover, it should be noted
that the negative construction here have a stronger impact on the reader than
the affirmative ones. So the negation in litotes should not be regarded as mere
denial of the quality mentioned.
The stylistic effect of litotes depends mainly on intonation, on intonation
only. If compare two intonation patterns, one which suggests a mere denial (It
is not bad as contrary to It is bad) with the other which saggests
assertion of a positive quality of the object (It is no bad = it is good) the
different will become apparent.
A variant of litotes is a construction with two negations, as in (not unlike,
not unpromising). Here accordingly to general logical and mathematical,
principles, two negatives make a positive(Soames, with his lips and his
squared chin was not unlike a bull dog)
Zuegma and pun
Zuegma is the use of the word in the same grammatical but different
semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic
relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred.
E. g. “Dora, plunging at once into
privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room”
Zuegma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the
primary meaning when the two meanings clash. By making the two meanings
conspicuous in this particular way, each of them stands out clearly
The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of well-known
meanings of a word or phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast
distinction between zeugma and the pun. The only reliable distinguishing
feature is a structural: zeugma is realization of two meanings with the help
of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects. The pun is
more independent. There need not necessarily be a word in the sentence to
which the pun-word refers. But this does not mean that the pun is entirely
free. Like any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context. E. g. “Bow
to the board – Said Bumble. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that
were lingering in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table,
fortunately bowed to that.”
Climax (gradation)
Climax is an arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in
significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance. E. g.” It was
a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city.”
As it see from this e. g. each successive unit is perceived as
stronger than the preceding one.
A gradual
increase may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and
quantitative.
Logical
climax is base don the relative importance of the component parts look at
from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them.
Emotional
climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with
emotive meaning, as in the first example, with the words “lovely”, “beautiful”,
fair”. Of course, emotional climax based on synonymous strings of words.
Quantitative
climax
Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the
situation. When it used as stylistic device, always imitates the common
features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines absence of
the certain members
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or
an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being
opposite in sense,
E.g.: low skyscraper; sweet
sorrow; pleasantly ugly face
The essence of oxymoron consists in the capacity of the primary meaning of
the adjective or adverb to resist for some time the overwhelming power of
semantic change which words undegro in combination. The forcible combination
of non-combinative words seems to develop what may be called a kind of
centrifugal force which keeps them apart, in contrast to ordinary word
combinations where centripetal force is in action.
In
oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast because there is no true word
combination, only the juxtaposition of two non-combinative words. But we may
notice a peculiar change in the meaning of the qualifying word. It assumes a
new life in oxymoron, definitely indicative of assessing tendency in the
writer’s mind.
E. g. (O. Henry) “I despise its
very vastness and power. It has the poorest millionaires, the littlest
great men, the haughtiest beggars, the plainest beauties,
the lowest skyscrapers, the dolefulest pleasures of any town I
eve seen.”
Even the superlative degree of the adjectives fails to extinguish the
primary meaning of the adjectives: poor, little, haughty, etc. But by
some inner law of word combinations they also show the attitude of the
speaker, reinforced, of course, by the preceding sentence: “I despise its
very vastness and power.”
Oxymoron as a rule has one structural model: adjective noun. It is in this
structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion
into one unit manifests itself most strongly. In the adverb adjective model
the change of meaning in the first element, the adverb, is more rapid,
resistance to the unifying process not being so strong
Not
every combination of words which we called non-combinative should be regarded
as oxymoron, because new meaning developed in new combinations do not
necessarily give rise to opposition.
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